Structure

Word classes

A word can appear in more than one class:

“I know that they are abroad” | Conjunction

“I know that” | Pronoun

“I know that man” | Determiner

Closed classes words (form-class)

Category of parts of speech that don’t readily accept new members.
Think of the form-class words as the bricks of the language and the structure words as the mortar that holds them together.

Closed-class words or ‘function words’ are limited in number and act as markers or guides to the structure of a sentence.\ They set up a frame for interpreting the interrelationships between actors, actions, and objects.

E.g.:

• Articles: signal nouns

• Prepositions: mark special relationships between persons, objects, and locations

• Conjunctions: connectors that link actors or objects, and specify relationships between clauses in the sentence. Open- and closed-class words occupy certain slots in sentences and

Closed Members:

• Determiners

• Pronouns

• Auxiliaries

• Qualifiers

• Interrogatives

• Prepositions

• Expletives

• Particles

Determiners

A determiner sits before a noun to indicate quantity, possession, specificity, or definiteness.

A determiner specifies or limits a noun or a pronoun or states quantity

Articles determiners

• The definite article: the.\ Used before a noun to define it as something specific

• The indefinite article: a, an. Used before a noun to define something non-specific. Generic, or mentioned for the first time

Demonstratives determiners

This, that, these, those Also called demonstrative adjectives. Identify a noun or pronoun by expressing its position as near or far (also time, concept). Do not confuse with demonstrative pronouns (same words), that do not modify a noun or pronoun but stand as pronoun.

This plate is hot (physical position, near)

I will remember this day forever (position in time, today)

Those decisions were tough (position in time, past)

I live in that solitude which is painful in youth but delicious in the years of maturity(Einstein. Conceptual position, more abstract, maybe distant)

All generalizations are dangerous, even this one. (French writer Alexandre Dumas, concept, concrete, immediate, punchier, self-referential)

In these matters, the only certainty is nothing is certain. (Roman scientist Pliny, concept)

Possessives determiners

Possessive adjectives: My, your, his, her, its, our, their, whose

We use “whose” when the owner is unknown

Quantifiers determiners

Pronouns

A pronoun is a word that is used instead of a noun or noun phrase. They are used when your audience already knows what you’re talking about, or instead a noun that does not need to be named specifically. They avoid repetition, and help to refer to someone or something already known.

This is the thing that you asked for (that points to thing inside the relative clause)

“That”

“that” is a relative pronoun, but in this use it doesn’t really replace a whole noun in the way a personal pronoun does (he, she, it).

I found the thing that you were looking for (the antecedent is ‘the thing’)

Personal Pronouns

Subjective
I, you, he, she, it, we, they

‘They’ can be used instead of he/she for singular neutral personal pronoun. This pertains to possessive determiners:

A journalist must protect their sources (journalist is singular)

Objective
Me, you, him/her/it, us, you, them

You can say:

It was I

But nowadays people would say:

It was me

Possessive Pronouns

Pronouns
A pronoun that a noun and shows ownership: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs.

It’s not yours

Possessive adjectives
The possessive determiners, my, yours, his, its, our, their are considered pronominal - having the traits of a possessive pronoun:

Is that the Queen’s hat? No, it’s her crown (her is an adjective that modifies crown, but also replaces the noun ’The Queen’)

Demonstrative pronouns

Relative pronouns

These pronouns are one of the two options to introduce an adjective clause (the other is with relative adverb: when, where, why). It is always a subordinate clause. The pronouns are:
that, which, who, whom, what, whose

Function or a relative pronoun\

• Identify

The man who won the lottery is outside.

• Tell us something interesting:

Inspector Smith, who won the lottery, is outside.

Dropping the relative pronoun
Drop the relative pronoun when it’s the object in a non-restrictive clause (the adjective clause it introduces).

Dropping the subject leaves the relative clause’s verb dangling w/o a subject and disturbs the structure (‘the person called you is my friend’).
As an object in a restrictive clause, the relative pronoun is nice to have, and we still have all the parts in place after dropping it.

Restrictive clause:

The person who called you is my friend (‘who’ is a subject, can’t drop)

The book that I read yesterday was amazing (‘that’ is the object, can drop it, ‘the book’ keeps the meaning and structure)

Non-Restrictive clause:

My friend, who lives in Canada, is visiting (‘who’ is the subject, can’t drop)

My friend, whom I met yesterday, is visiting (‘whom’ is an object, still can’t drop)

Who, whose, whom

Pronoun	Refers to	Function in Clause	Example	Tip / Test
who	People	Subject	“The man who called is my uncle.”	If you can replace with he/she, use who.
whom	People	Object	“The man whom you called is my uncle.”	If you can replace with him/her, use whom. Often follows a preposition.
whose	People or things	Possessive	“The man whose car was stolen is my neighbor.”	Think of it as “of whom/which.” Shows possession.

Reflexive pronouns

Refer back to the subject of a sentence or clause, and are formed by adding -self or -selves to a personal pronoun or possessive adjectives

Indefinite pronouns

Everybody, either, none, something etc. Do not refer to a specific person or thing, and typically refer to unidentified or unfamiliar person or thing.

Expletives Pronouns

The words it and there can also be used like pronouns when the rules of grammar require a subject but no noun is actually being referred to. Both are usually used at the beginning of a sentence or clause.

It was almost noon

There is some cake left.”

Antecedent

The noun that a pronoun refers to or replaces.

The ‘thing’
Sometimes though, the antecedent is not specifically mentioned. The pronoun just saves the need to add ‘the thing…’ or ‘the things’

Please hide these from Lee (antecedent of these not mentioned)

Please hide the items from Lee (‘the things = the items’, without a pronoun)

At the heart of Stoicism is an entire novel conception of what freedom means (“what freedom means” = “the thing which freedom means”, fused)

Context
Without context, a standalone subject pronoun may not have an antecedent.

She is a teacher (no context)

Mary is very smart. She is a teacher (with context, Mary is the antecedent)

Failed reference of the pronoun
When the pronoun points to missing or ambiguous antecedent, the sentence fails:

The pie tin was empty because Lee had eaten it (pie is an adjective, ‘it’ is a personal pronoun and should point to a noun)

The journalist’s article reflects his experience (journalist is in possessive form, therefore an adjective)

Jack told John he was depressed (an ambiguous antecedent)

Nominal relative (fused)

Also called fused relative pronoun or free relative clause or independent relative clause.

Combines a noun or pronoun with another pronoun.

A free relative can function as a subject, a complement or an object. The nominal relative clause functions as a noun.

The relative word in the nominal relative clause has no antecedent since the antecedent is fused with the relative.

As a pronoun, it usually stands for “a thing” or “things” (what, whatever)

This is what you asked for (what = the thing + that)

I found what (that which; the thing that) you were looking for

You go ahead and think whatever you want (whatever acts as a relative pronoun introducing the clause and object of want, replaces ‘think the things that you want’)

Fused Clarification Example\

At the heart of Stoicism is an entire novel conception of what freedom means. (fused, conception about the essence of freedom)

At the heart of Stoicism is an entire novel conception of the idea that freedom is self-mastery (not fused: ‘the idea’, the thing, conception about a particular idea of freedom)

Form classes (open)\

• Nouns

• Verbs

• Adjectives

• Adverbs

Structure class\

• Determiners

Noun Phrase

Head word: Noun Modifier: adjective/s Signaler: Determiner

Complement

• Word, phrase a clause that is required to complete the meaning of another element

Subject Complement

A subject complement is a word or phrase that follows a linking verb and identifies or describes the subject.

Object complement

An object complement is a noun, a pronoun, or an adjective that follows a direct object to rename it or state what it has become

Adjective complement

• An adjective complement is a phrase or a clause, not a single word.

• An adjective complement follows immediately after the adjective it completes.

• An adjective complement modifies a predicate adjective.

• An adjective complement is necessary to complete the meaning of its adjective.

Anna was angry about your comment

Anna was angry that you commented

Sarah felt alone in the world.(as prepositional phrase, modifies the adj. alone)

We were happy to be of service (infinitive phrase, modifies adj. happy)

Are you ready to go (infinitive phrase)

I am unsure why you raised this point. (as a clause, modifies unsure)

John seems certain who contacted the media (clause, modifies certain)

Rules\

• A clause that functions as an adjective complement is headed by an interrogative pronoun or interrogative adverb

Types of Complements

Subject

• A subject complement is an adjective, noun, or pronoun. It’s never an adverb.

• If you think “It was I” doesn’t sound pretentious, use that construction. If you think it does, don’t. Use “It was me”

Adjective

• An adjective complement is a phrase or a clause, not a single word.

• An adjective complement follows immediately after the adjective it completes.

• An adjective complement modifies a predicate adjective.

• An adjective complement is necessary to complete the meaning of its adjective.

Objective

Verbs of making (e.g., “to make,” “to create”) or naming (e.g., “to name,” “to call,” “to elect”) often attract an object complement

Predicative adjunct

Interrogative adverbs

Adverbs used to ask questions about

• Time

• Place

• Reason

• Manner

• Frequency

Interrogative Adverb	Asks About	Example
When	Time	When are you leaving?
Where	Place	Where did you go yesterday?
Why	Reason	Why are you late?
How	Manner / Method	How did you solve the problem?
How often	Frequency	How often do you exercise?
How long	Duration	How long will it take?
How much / How many	Quantity / Amount	How much does it cost? / How many people came?