Syntactic Clauses

Subordinate Clauses

Type	Function	Common Introducers / Markers	Example
Relative clause	Modifies a noun (adjective function)	who, whom, whose, which, that, where, when	The book that I read was fascinating.
Noun clause	Acts as subject, object, or complement	that, whether, if, wh-words (what, who, how…)	I know that she is honest.
Adverbial clause	Modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb (time, reason, etc.)	because, although, if, when, since, while, as, unless	We stayed inside because it was raining.

Adjective clause

a multi-word adjective that includes a subject and a verb. Always starts with:

• A relative pronoun: that, which, who, whom, whose

• A relative adverb: when, where, why

With relative pronoun, the pronoun can be dropped if it’s the object of a restrictive relative clause

Restrictive clause

A clause that identifies the word it modifies. It’s not offset by commas

It has been my experience that folks who have no vices have very few virtues (Lincoln)

I live in that solitude which is painful in youth but delicious in the years of maturity (Albert Einstein. Note: This restrictive clause starts with “which.”, considered a British convention. Americans prefer “that.”)

How can you govern a country which has 246 varieties of cheese? (French President Charles De Gaulle)

Finite vs. Non-finite clause

Feature	Non-finite clause (to-infinitive)	Finite clause
Verb form	Base verb + infinitive marker to	Inflected for tense, person, number
Can stand alone?	Usually cannot	Often can (if main clause)
Subject	Often implied/controlled by matrix clause	Usually explicit
Tense / Agreement	Neutral; not marked on the verb	Explicitly marked on the verb
Punctuation in writing	Comma if fronted; usually none if postposed	Comma depends on position (fronted subordinate, coordinate, etc.)
Style / effect	Concise, smooth, less repetitive	Full clause, explicit, more formal or emphatic
Typical functions	Noun, adjective, or adverbial	Subject, object, complement, or adverbial

Types of Adverbial clauses, by form

Form Type	Example	Notes
Finite Adverbial Clause	Because she was tired, she went home.	Contains a tensed verb (was). Introduced by subordinators (because, although, if, when, before, since, unless, etc.).
Non-finite Adverbial Clause (Infinitival)	She went home to rest	To + verb, expresses purpose, often ambiguous between intent / result.
Non-finite Adverbial Clause (Participial – Present)	Walking down the street, she saw her friend.	-ing clause, usually indicates time, manner, cause, or condition. Often subject-controlled.
Non-finite Adverbial Clause (Participial – Past)	Finished with dinner, they left.	Past participle, often expresses state, time, or condition.
Non-finite Adverbial Clause (Bare Infinitive or Reduced)	He left, never to return	Infinitive without to (rare or idiomatic), typically literary or formal.
Absolute Clause (a.k.a. Supplementary Non-finite Clause)	Weather permitting, we’ll go for a hike.	Noun + participle or adjective. Functions like an external comment about the situation.