Signalers¶

Nouns¶

Can show plural
Can show possessive

Verb¶

Can show tense, such as present or past

Complements¶

Simple grammar labels roles by meaning or surface pattern (e.g. “linking verb,” “object complement”), while CGEL defines them strictly by syntactic selection and head–dependent relations. So something counts as a complement in CGEL only if it is selected by a head; otherwise—even if it feels semantically important—it is analyzed as a determiner, modifier, or adjunct.

Head └── Dependents ├── Complements └── Adjuncts (Modifiers)

Usually if you can’t iterate, can’t be repeated, it’s a complement (modifiers can be repeated)

Adjective Complements¶

(phrases completing the meaning of an adjective)

Common Signalers	Examples
Prepositions (often of, with, about, to, at, for) Subordinators introducing clauses (that, if, whether, how, why)	afraid of spiders happy that* you came* keen to help

Subject Complements¶

(occur after linking verbs)

Common Signalers	Examples
Linking verbs: be, become, seem, appear, feel, look, remain, sound, stay, taste, smell, grow, turn	She is a teacher. He became* angry.* The milk smells* bad.*

Object Complements¶

(complete or modify the object)

Common Signalers	Examples
Causative/perception verbs: make, find, consider, call, elect, name, paint, leave, choose Verb + object + infinitive/adj/noun patterns	They made me angry. We elected her president. I found the movie boring.

Try to change the verb:

Only certain verbs allow this pattern:

✔ leave the door unlocked

✖ admire the door unlocked

The availability of unlocked depends on the lexical properties of leave. That dependence is a hallmark of complements, not adjuncts.

Main signalers of implied subjects¶

Structure Type	Signalers / Clues	Implied Subject Is…	Example
Imperatives (commands/instructions)	Verb in base form with no stated subject	You	Sit down. → (You) sit down.
Infinitival clauses (to + verb)	“to + verb” without a stated subject	Usually the subject of the higher clause, or generic “you/one”	I want to leave. → (I) want (me) to leave.
Gerund clauses (verb-ing phrases)	-ing form functioning as subject/object without explicit subject	Often generic “you/one” or contextual agent	Swimming is fun. → (People / you / one) swimming is fun.
Diary / note style (elliptical clauses)	Present tense verbs without subjects in informal logs or headlines	I (first person implied)	Feeling tired today. → (I am) feeling tired today.
Instructions / Recipes / Headlines	Telegraphic style lacking subjects	Generic one / you / we / people	Add water. Bake for 20 minutes.
Subordinate clauses used as complements	Verbs like want, know, hope, decide followed by to + verb	Same as subject of main clause	They decided to leave. → (They decided (they) would leave.)
Non-finite clauses after prepositions	before/after/by/without + -ing	Contextual doer from main clause	She left without saying goodbye. → (She left without her* saying goodbye.)*

Transitive Verbs¶

Probably an Object.

A complex transitive verb that selects two complements, signals an Object complement:

Chocolate makes [her] [happy]

Intransitive Verbs¶

A verb that does not take a direct object.

The next element, if anything, is likely to be an adjunct

Clauses¶

We can re-write the sentence with each clause a separate sentence

Pronouns¶

Can’t take confirmation tags:

You will be there
You will be there, won’t you? (ok)

Hugh will be there
~~Hugh will be there, won’t Hugh?~~

Hardly ever takes an article

Determinative/adverbs¶

Quick test:

Pre-nominal + NP → Determinative
Modifies adjective, adverb, VP, or clause → Adverb

Some words overlap:

Much effort was wasted.

“much” quantifies the non-count noun effort (degree determinative).

She is much better now.

“much” modifies the adjective better (degree modifier).

Determinatives other than An, Every, The, are allowed to stand on their own as if they were head nouns:

Some like it hot

Usually one determinative per NP

~~The both children~~

Only All and Both can occur before the determinative of another NP as pre-determiners:

All the chairs were damaged I love both my children

It’s not:

I love both [of my children] (drop of)

Since:

those of the children that were eligible ~~ those of the

Auxiliary verb¶

Have negative form. Lexical verbs never have negative form
Verb in initial position, starts the sentence
Verb with not after it
“Be” is always aux

Can convert to attributive position?¶

I found the room empty. The room was empty when I entered it. I entered the empty room.

If it can be replaced by an attributive adjective, it’s an adjective.

The mail arrived late

Hit that nail hard

You have to dig deep

It had seldom flown so high

All are adverbs that happen to have exactly the same shape as their related adjectives.

Auxiliary verb vs. lexical verb¶

Only auxiliary verbs has negative form, like “don’t”
Only Aux verbs can stand at the beginning of closed interrogatives
The word not can follow auxiliary verb

~~We have not a washing machine~~ (have is a lexical verb here)

The adverb “very”¶

If it modifiers a word, this word is most likely an adjective (not the adjective very, like “the very person”)

ly for adverbs¶

Many adjectives, and a few nouns (bodily, partly etc) form adverbs by adding “ly”, generally related to the manner.

However this is not a full-proof signalers. There are “ly” adjectives: early, jolly, ugly, weekly, and others nouns of verbs

Adverbs vs. prepositions¶

Adverbs can often go before a verb. Prepositions can’t.

The plumber fixed it promptly The plumber promptly fixed it (adverb)

The plumber fixed it up ~~The plumber up fixed it~~ (preposition)

Right must take preposition:

You should keep right away

I’ll be right back

right on target

right on time

The school is right across the road

It went right down

Clean up your room right now

It happened right there

All the words after “right” are prepositions (not adverbs)

Adverbs vs. Adjectives¶

With adverbs, you cannot convert directly to attributive position.
With adjective, you can: