Reference tables

Adjectival Determiners

Determiner Class	Adjectival?	Example
Articles	No	the, a, an → the dog
Demonstratives	Yes	this, that, these, those → this book
Possessives	No	my, your, his → my pen
Numbers	Yes	one, two, first → three cats
Distributives	Yes	each, every, either, neither → each student
Quantifiers / general	Sometimes	some, many, all → many friends
Interrogative determiners	Yes	which, what, whose → which book

Subordinate concessive conjunctions

Conjunction	Type of contrast	Example	Nuance
although	factual contrast	Although it rained, we walked	neutral, standard
though	factual contrast	I walked, though it rained	informal, conversational
even though	strong unexpected contrast	Even though it poured, we walked	emphasizes surprise
whereas / while	comparison of facts	He likes tea, whereas I prefer coffee	shows difference between ideas
even if	hypothetical obstacle	I’ll walk even if it rains	main clause occurs despite condition
as though / as if	hypothetical, unreal	He acted as if he knew everything	suggests something contrary to reality
no matter (how/what/who/when/where)	limiting condition ignored	No matter what happens, I’ll stay	emphasizes inevitability of main clause

Despite, in spite of:

Both can not connect subordinate clause.

Conjunction	Type of contrast	Example	Nuance
despite	factual/real contrast	Despite the rain, we walked	formal, emphasizes main action over obstacle
in spite of	factual/real contrast	In spite of the rain, we walked	similar to “despite,” slightly less formal

Clarification of contrasts

Conjunction / Preposition	Works like although ?	Notes on differences	Can connect subordinate clause?
although	✅ Yes	Standard factual contrast, links clauses.	✅ Yes
though	✅ Mostly	Informal version of “although,” clause-linking. Can appear at the end.	✅ Yes
even though	✅ Yes, stronger	Emphasizes unexpected contrast more than “although.”	✅ Yes
whereas / while	⚠️ Partially	Compares two facts or situations; more about difference than unexpected contrast.	✅ Yes
even if	⚠️ No	Hypothetical contrast; focuses on “if it were true” rather than “it is true but surprising.”	✅ Yes
as though / as if	⚠️ No	Hypothetical/unreal contrast; suggests something contrary to reality.	✅ Yes
no matter (how/what/who/when/where)	⚠️ No	Emphasizes inevitability despite circumstances; not a simple factual contrast.	⚠️ Only with full clause introduced by “that” or as noun phrase
despite	⚠️ No	Preposition; introduces a noun/gerund, not a full clause. Expresses contrast formally.	❌ No
in spite of	⚠️ No	Same as “despite,” slightly less formal. Must be followed by noun/gerund.	❌ No

When “no matter” can coordinate:

No matter where you go, I will follow you. No matter where she lives, she stays in touch with her friends.

Although there are many obstacles, she keeps smiling (although always connects a subordinate)

And when not:

She keeps smiling no matter the obstacles.

She keeps smiling in spite of the obstacles (in spite of never connects a subordinate)

That: Roles of

Role	Function / Explanation	Example
Relative pronoun	Introduces a relative clause (often restrictive) and refers back to a noun.	The book that you lent me was fascinating. (“that” = “book”)
Demonstrative pronoun	Refers to a specific thing or idea, often pointing at something farther away in space or time.	That is amazing! (“that” refers to something mentioned or visible)
Demonstrative adjective / determiner	Modifies a noun to indicate a specific one.	I don’t like that movie.
Conjunction / subordinating conjunction	Introduces a noun clause, often after verbs like “think,” “know,” “say,” etc.	I think that she is right.
Expletive / filler (less common, literary)	Used for emphasis in clauses without adding meaning.	It is such that we cannot ignore it. (formal/literary)

Demonstrative pronouns vs. demonstrative determiners (adjectives):

Feature	Demonstrative Pronoun	Demonstrative Determiner (Adjective)
Function	Replaces a noun entirely	Modifies a noun, points out which one
Accompanies a noun?	No	Yes, it always comes before a noun
Examples	This is amazing. / That was fun.	This book is amazing. / Those movies were fun.
Grammatical role	Acts as the subject, object, or complement	Acts as an adjective modifying a noun
Notes	Can stand alone	Cannot stand alone; needs a noun to modify

Examples:

Word	As a pronoun	As a determiner
this	This is delicious. (stands alone, subject)	This cake is delicious. (modifies noun “cake”)
that	That was amazing.	That movie was amazing.
these	These are mine.	These shoes are mine.
those	Those look great.	Those flowers look great.

Personal pronouns by case

Person / Number	Subjective Case	Objective Case	Possessive Determiner	Possessive Pronoun	Reflexive Pronoun
First Person Singular	I	me	my	mine	myself
Second Person Singular	you	you	your	yours	yourself
Third Person Singular	he / she / it	him / her / it	his / her / its	his / hers / its	himself / herself / itself
First Person Plural	we	us	our	ours	ourselves
Second Person Plural	you	you	your	yours	yourselves
Third Person Plural	they	them	their	theirs	themselves

Adjective clause

a multi-word adjective that includes a subject and a verb. Always starts with:

• A relative pronoun: that, which, who, whom, whose

• A relative adverb: when, where, why

With relative pronoun, the pronoun can be dropped if it’s the object of a restrictive relative clause

Restrictive clause

A clause that identifies the word it modifies. It’s not offset by commas

It has been my experience that folks who have no vices have very few virtues (Lincoln)

I live in that solitude which is painful in youth but delicious in the years of maturity (Albert Einstein. Note: This restrictive clause starts with “which.”, considered a British convention. Americans prefer “that.”)

How can you govern a country which has 246 varieties of cheese? (French President Charles De Gaulle)

When you can drop a relative pronoun

Clause type	Pronoun role	Can you drop it?	Example
Restrictive	Subject	❌ No	The person who called you…
Restrictive	Object	✅ Yes	The book (that) I read…
Non-restrictive	Subject	❌ No	My uncle, who lives in Paris…
Non-restrictive	Object	❌ No (in standard English)	My uncle, whom I met yesterday…

Complementizers

Complementizer	Type	Can Function as Pronoun?	Can Function as Adverb?	Example as Complementizer	Example as Pronoun/Adverb
that	complementizer	No (modern English)	No	I know that you’re right.	–
who	pronoun	Yes	No	She asked who called.	Who called? (pronoun)
whom	pronoun	Yes	No	I don’t know whom to invite.	Whom did you see? (pronoun)
which	pronoun	Yes	No	I don’t know which to choose.	Which is yours? (pronoun)
what	pronoun	Yes	No	Tell me what you want.	What is that? (pronoun)
whose	pronoun	Yes	No	I don’t know whose it is.	Whose book is this? (pronoun)
when	adverb	No	Yes	I remember when we met.	When did you arrive? (adverb)
where	adverb	No	Yes	She showed me where to go.	Where are you going? (adverb)
why	adverb	No	Yes	I wonder why he left.	Why did he leave? (adverb)
how	adverb	No	Yes	He explained how it works.	How did you do that? (adverb)
if	conjunction/complementizer	No	No	I asked if she agreed.	–
whether	conjunction/complementizer	No	No	I don’t know whether to stay.	–

Subordinate Clauses

Type | Function | Common Introducers / Markers | Example

— | — | — | — Relative clause | Modifies a noun (adjective function) | who, whom, whose, which, that, where, when | The book that I read was fascinating. Noun clause | Acts as subject, object, or complement | that, whether, if, wh-words (what, who, how…) | I know that she is honest. Adverbial clause | Modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb (time, reason, condition, contrast, etc.) | because, although, if, when, since, while, as, unless | We stayed inside because it was raining.

Common roles of prepositional phrases

PP Role / Semantic Function	Typical Prepositions	Function / Description	Example	Grammatical Role
Agent (doer)	by	Performer of action in passive clauses	The book was written by the author.	Adverbial (agentive adjunct)
Patient / Theme complement	of / about / for	Completes the meaning of the verb; required	She is aware of the problem.	Complement
Instrument	with / by	Tool used to perform action	He opened the door with a key.	Adverbial (instrumental adjunct)
Locative (place)	in / on / at / under / over	Location where action occurs	She waited at the station.	Adverbial (locative adjunct)
Temporal (time)	on / in / at / during	Time of the action	He left in the morning.	Adverbial (temporal adjunct)
Manner / method	by / with / in	How the action is done	She solved the problem by reasoning carefully.	Adverbial (manner adjunct)
Cause / reason	because of / due to / from	Explains why the action occurs	He trembled because of fear.	Adverbial (causal adjunct)
Beneficiary / recipient	for / to	For whom the action is done	She baked a cake for her friend.	Adverbial (benefactive adjunct)
Source / origin/ cause / reason	from / out of	Origin of action or material	The news came from the newspaper.	Adverbial (source adjunct)
Purpose / goal	for / to	Intended outcome	He studies for the exam.	Adverbial (purpose adjunct)

Genitives types

Phrase	Wrong	✅ Correct
the teacher’s car	complement	genitive determiner
a bottle of wine	complement?	“of wine” = complement (because of-phrases after nouns like bottle/type/idea are complements!)
John’s arrival	complement	dependent genitive

Common semantic roles

Role	Description	Typical Grammatical Realization	Example
Agent	The doer of the action	Usually subject in active voice; “by + NP” in passive	The chef cooked the meal → Agent = the chef
Patient	The entity undergoing a change	Direct object (active) or subject (passive)	The cake was eaten → Patient = the cake
Theme	The entity the action is about or acts upon, may or may not change	Object, subject, or PP complement	She dreamed of flying → Theme = flying
Experiencer	Entity perceiving, feeling, or experiencing	Subject or object of psychological verbs/adjectives	She is aware of the problem → Experiencer = she
Beneficiary / Recipient	Entity receiving or benefiting from the action	Indirect object, PP	She baked a cake for her friend → Beneficiary = her friend
Instrument	Tool used to perform the action	PP (usually with with/by)	He opened the door with a key → Instrument = key
Location / Locative	Place where action occurs	PP, adverbial	She waited at the station → Location = station
Temporal	Time when action occurs	PP, adverbial	He left in the morning → Temporal = morning
Cause / Reason	Why the action occurs	PP, adverbial	He trembled because of fear → Cause = fear
Purpose / Goal	Intended outcome of action	PP, adverbial	He studies for the exam → Goal = exam
Source / Origin	Origin or starting point	PP, adverbial	The news came from the newspaper → Source = newspaper

Types of Adverbial clauses, by form

Form Type	Example	Notes
Finite Adverbial Clause	Because she was tired, she went home.	Contains a tensed verb (was). Introduced by subordinators (because, although, if, when, before, since, unless, etc.).
Non-finite Adverbial Clause (Infinitival)	She went home to rest	To + verb, expresses purpose, often ambiguous between intent / result.
Non-finite Adverbial Clause (Participial – Present)	Walking down the street, she saw her friend.	-ing clause, usually indicates time, manner, cause, or condition. Often subject-controlled.
Non-finite Adverbial Clause (Participial – Past)	Finished with dinner, they left.	Past participle, often expresses state, time, or condition.
Non-finite Adverbial Clause (Bare Infinitive or Reduced)	He left, never to return	Infinitive without to (rare or idiomatic), typically literary or formal.
Absolute Clause (a.k.a. Supplementary Non-finite Clause)	Weather permitting, we’ll go for a hike.	Noun + participle or adjective. Functions like an external comment about the situation.

Types of adverbial clauses by semantic function

Function	Example
Time	When the bell rang, class ended.
Reason/Cause	Since it was late, we left.
Purpose	She whispered to avoid waking the baby.
Condition	If you call, I’ll answer.
Concession / Contrast	Although he was tired, he kept working.
Result / Consequence	She spoke so softly that we could hardly hear her.
Manner / Comparison	He treated her as if she were invisible.

Clause function: Target vs. commonly confused types

Clause Type	Example	General Explanation
Complement Clause	She wants to buy a laptop	A clause required to complete the meaning of the main verb.
Relative Clause	a laptop that she wants to buy	A clause that modifies a noun or pronoun.
Result Clause	She saved so much money that she bought a new laptop	A clause expressing the outcome or consequence of an action.
Conditional Clause	If she saves enough money, she will buy a laptop	A clause expressing a condition under which the main clause is true.
Concessive / Contrast Clause	Although she was tired, she continued working	A clause showing contrast or unexpected information relative to the main clause.
Adverbial Purpose Clause	She saved extra money to buy a new laptop	A clause expressing the intention or purpose of the main clause.

Prepositional Relative Marker

A two-part connector that introduces a relative clause, made up of Preposition + Relative pronoun

Preposition	Relative Pronoun	Combined (Prepositional Relative Marker)
in	which	in which
for	whom	for whom
with	which	with which
to	which	to which
by	whom	by whom

Finite vs. Non-finite clause

Feature	Non-finite clause (to-infinitive)	Finite clause
Verb form	Base verb + infinitive marker to	Inflected for tense, person, number
Can stand alone?	Usually cannot	Often can (if main clause)
Subject	Often implied/controlled by matrix clause	Usually explicit
Tense / Agreement	Neutral; not marked on the verb	Explicitly marked on the verb
Punctuation in writing	Comma if fronted; usually none if postposed	Comma depends on position (fronted subordinate, coordinate, etc.)
Style / effect	Concise, smooth, less repetitive	Full clause, explicit, more formal or emphatic
Typical functions	Noun, adjective, or adverbial	Subject, object, complement, or adverbial

Common types of adjective phrases

Type of Adjective Phrase	Structure / Form	Example Before Noun (Prepositive)	Example After Noun (Postpositive)
Simple adjective	Single adjective	a happy child	a child happy again (poetic/literary)
Adjective + prepositional phrase	Adj + PP	afraid of spiders	the people afraid of spiders
Adjective + infinitive clause	Adj + to + verb	eager to learn	students eager to learn
Adjective + participle	Adj + -ing / -ed	busy working	workers busy working
Participle phrase (present)	-ing phrase	a glowing review	a review glowing with praise
Participle phrase (past)	-ed phrase	a broken window	a window broken by vandals
Adjective + that-clause	Adj + that…	sure that he’s right	people sure that he’s right
Adverb + adjective	Adv + Adj	deeply unhappy man	a man deeply unhappy
Compound adjective	Adj + hyphen + Adj/Noun	a long-term plan	a plan long-term (rare, formal)
Comparative / superlative phrase	Adj-er / Adj-est + than/of…	a better option	the option better than expected
Postpositive-only adjectives	Fixed-position adjectives	❌ a general elect → incorrect	✅ the general elect

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Common “wh” word and their function

Word	Can be relative pronoun?	Can be relative adverb?	Notes
who	✅	❌	Refers to people; can be subject or object of relative clause
whom	✅	❌	Object form of “who”
whose	✅	❌	Possessive relative pronoun
which	✅	❌	Refers to things/animals; can be subject or object
that	✅	❌	Can refer to people or things; restrictive only
where	✅ (relative pronoun/adjective)	✅	Refers to place; replaces “in/on which”
when	✅ (relative pronoun/adjective)	✅	Refers to time; replaces “on/in which”
why	❌	✅	Refers to reason; “for which”

Possesives

Type	Specific Items	Example Sentence	Explanation
Possessive Pronouns	mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs, [no it]	This pen is mine.	“Mine” replaces “my pen.”
Possessive Adjectives	my, your, his, her, its, our, their	My phone is on the table.	“My” modifies “phone” to show ownership.
Possessive Determiners	my, your, his, her, its, our, their, whose	Our team won the match.	“Our” modifies “team” to indicate possession. Whose is a determiner too but not an adjective.

Common Postmodifiers

Type of Postmodifier	Structure / Form	Example	Notes
Adjectival phrase	Adjective or coordinated adjectives	“faults, pure and simple”	Often emphatic; no verb required
Prepositional phrase	Prep + NP	“the shadow side of aspects”	Functions adjectivally; modifies the noun
Relative clause	Relative pronoun/adverb + clause	“aspects that are genuinely good about them”	Can be restrictive or non-restrictive
Participial phrase	Present or past participle phrase	“a window broken by vandals”	Functions adjectivally; modifies noun
Infinitive phrase	To + verb	“the best person to ask”	Functions adjectivally; describes the noun
Appositive phrase	NP that renames the noun	“my friend, a skilled violinist”	Often set off by commas; emphasizes or clarifies