That is the “traditional” or “Aristotelian” definition. In this specific system, the Predicate is the Verb Phrase (VP).
Do not confuse with CGEL’s Predicator.
Clause = Subject + Predicate
Predicate is a clause-level function, not a constituent type. It is not a single node in CGEL tree structure, but a descriptive “traditional” cover term. The predicate is everything in the clause except the subject.
Predicator is a function, not a word category.
The predicator is the functional head of the VP, which license other elements of the VP.
The predicator is the “boss” that decides if a predicative is a complement, or an adjunct (extra).
It is assigned to the head verb of a clause.
The predicator can license:
The object
The predicative complement
Both.
Licensing does not mean required - but it always means a complement.
A complement is required or optional. Adjuncts are always optional, and never licensed.
Licensing both object and predicative complement is a complex-transitive structure that sets two way relationship:
Licenses the object
Licenses a predicative complement that characterises the object (a predicative complement whose predicand is the object)
Predicative adjuncts are unlicensed because they are “free riders.”
The verb doesn’t ask for them, and you can attach them to almost any verb regardless of its valency.
So the predicator does not license predicative adjuncts. They are simply added to the clause.
If a verb licenses both an object and a predicative complement, the predicative complement is normally predicated of the object:
They painted the door red. (door, red both licensed)
I found the book interesting.
If the predicative expression is instead predicated of the subject, it is typically a predicative adjunct:
She ate the meal angry. (angry is not licensed)
So a practical rule object licensing verbs:
Verb licenses object + predicative complement → complement is normally predicated of the object.
Verb licenses object + an independently added predicative adjunct → adjunct may be predicated of the subject.
Note
You can’t really tell why “red” is a complement and “angry” is an adjunct, since:
She painted the door (grammatical)
She ate the meal (grammatical)
Then why “red” is licensed and “angry” not?
A hint: The result. “paint” participates in the object + resultative predicative complement construction. Red expresses the resulting state of the object.
Instead, angry independently describes she while she was eating. Hence adjunct.
A good heuristic is therefore:
object + adjective expressing a state caused/established by the verb → likely predicative complement
adjective merely describing a participant during the event → likely predicative adjunct
They hammered the metal flat. (complement)
She wiped the table clean. (complement)
He drank the coffee nervous. (adjunct)
But ultimately, licensing is partly lexical.
The role, “slot”, filled by a verb within a clause. “Verb” is a “word category” (a.k.a. part of speech).
“Predicator” is a grammatical role.
The predicator is the verbal head that determines the clause’s valency
Licenses complements
Determines transitivity
Typical realisation: A lexical verb (not auxiliaries)
She [gave] him a book.
gave = predicator
it licenses:
Indirect object (him)
Direct object (a book)
Auxiliary contrast (contrast to the lexical have)
She has left.
left = predicator
has = auxiliary (marker of perfect aspect)
Important
Every finite clause has exactly one predicator.
The predicator is inside the predicate, but the two are not equivalent.
Core idea: A predicative attributes a property, state, role, or identity to an NP, but not a part of the NP.
A predicative must be linked to the NP by a verb, (the predicator). If it is “trapped” inside the NP, it is attributive.
Predictive describes a state (depictive) or a result (resultative)
Can be AdjP, NP or PP (but not AdvP)
Complement: Licensed/required by the predicator
She is ready
Adjunct: Optional/not licensed by the predicator
She arrived ready
Predicative adjuncts (PA) are structurally optional. They are not part of the predicator’s valency and are not “licensed” by the verb; they are simply added to the clause to provide extra information.
Subject-related: The property describes the subject
The water is cold
Object-related: The property describes the object
I drank the water cold
Depictive: Describes a state already existing during the process
He ate the tofu raw
Resultative: Describes a state produced by the process
He hammered the metal flat (result)
AdjP and PP can serve as both dedicative or resultative predicative. The role of NP changes by if it’s complement or adjunct: For predicative adjuncts, NP serve only as
A specific type of complement or adjunct that tells us something about the properties, state, or identity of a NP - outside that NP.
The predicated NP is called the predicand
Predicative is a clasual function, in the clause structure, assigned to a non-verbal phrase: AdjP, NP or PP.
It is not a phrase category
It may be a NP, AdjP, PP.
It is a constituent that ascribes a property, state, or role to it’s predicated (an NP within the clause).
It may be predicate the subject or the object.
A primary predicative is a predicative that:
Is licensed by a copular verb, predicate the subject
Is licensed by a complex-transitive verb, predicates the object
Forms the core predicate of the clause
Copular (for subject):
The sky is blue
blue → complement predicative (subject predicative)
is → copular verb
is blue → predicate
Complex-transitive (for object):
Attributive/judgment verbs: consider, find, deem, judge, count
Resultative/naming verbs: make, elect, name, appoint, call, label
They found the argument persuasive.
Not licensed and not required by the verb.
The predicative adjunct is optional and adds extra predication rather than being required by the verb.
It typically expresses a state of the subject or object during the event (simultaneous), rather than forming part of the core argument structure.
NP is almost always deceptive, AdjP and PP can be both.
Adjunct?
She ate the tofu raw (raw attributes a state to the tofu: the tofu is its predicand)
She placed the book open (open attributes a state to the book)
They painted the door red (red attributes a resulting state to the door: the door is its predicand)
Can we rephrase? Yes
She ate the tofu while it was raw. (depictive: the state holds during the event. Raw is a predicative adjunct rather than a complement licensed by eat)
She placed the book while it was open (depictive, adjunct)
They painted the door so it became red (resultative, complement, the state is brought about by the event. Red is a predicative complement licensed by the construction)
Not an adjunct: No property is attributed to the book
She placed the book on the table (on the table expresses a locative relation, a PP functioning as a locative complement licensed by place.)
Can we rephrase? No
She placed the book… (we can’t rephrase)
So “on the table” is a complement, but it is not the same kind of complement as red. It’s predicand is “She” via the predicator “placed”
Note
CGEL explicitly keeps locative complements and predicative complements syntactically distinct, even though they are semantically similar
Complement predicative:
Predicated of the subject.
She is intelligent.
intelligent = predicative
predicated of she
is is a copular verb
Other realizations:
She became a lawyer.
The sky turned red.
They elected her president.
president completes the meaning of the verb + object
predicated of her
Adjunct predicative:
Predicated of a non-subject NP (usually the object).
He painted the wall green (resultative).
green = adjunct predicative
predicated of the wall
AdjP, NP and PP can function as predicative complement
AdjP and PP can function as both depictive and resultative
NP can function as predicative complement, but only as depictive for predictive adjunct
A predicative may be:
The argument is flawed (AdjP)
The argument is a disaster (NP)
The argument is out of control (PP)
Category |
Depictive Adjunct? |
Resultative Adjunct? |
|---|---|---|
AdjP |
Yes (He left angry) |
Yes (He wiped it clean) |
PP |
Yes (He ran in fear) |
Yes (It froze to ice) |
NP |
Yes (He lived a hermit) |
No (Usually requires a preposition) |
This is a fundamental distinction in the system: Adjectives attribute properties to nouns/entities, while Adverbs typically modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Since a predicative complement’s job is to describe a predicant (usually a Noun Phrase), the AdvP is the wrong tool for the job.
She seems happy (copular)
She seems happily
He appeared calm (copular)
He appeared calmly (appear is not copular here, but another meaning, of an action)
She carefully placed the book on the table.
Predicate: carefully placed the book on the table
Complements: the book → object complement
placed is a transitive lexical verb taking an object (the book) and adjuncts (carefully, on the table).
No predicative complement is licensed.
Predicatives describe or characterize the subject or object. The complement “on the table” does not provide description/characteristic or “book”
She was careful while placing the book on the table.
Predicate: was careful while placing the book on the table
Complements: careful → **predicative complement (primary), predicated of the subject (she).
was is a copular verb.
careful is a primary predicative predicated of the subject (she).
She carefully placed the book open on the table.
Predicate: carefully placed the book open on the table
placed is used as a complex-transitive verb.
open is a secondary predicative predicated of the object (the book).
Complements:
- the book → object complement
- open → predicative complement (secondary), predicated of the object the book.
Why on the table is not a secondary predicative?
She carefully placed the book on the table.)
on the table is not a secondary predicative because it does not predicate a property of an NP (it expresses location, not attribution).
They finished the report
You could say:
The finished the report early (not predicative, )
Object is NP complement of a verb that is not predicative.
If it describes an NP → predicative
If it fills an argument slot → object
Type |
Meaning / focus |
Example |
|---|---|---|
Subject-oriented |
property/state of subject |
She is happy |
Object-oriented |
property/state of object |
They named him champion |
Stative vs dynamic |
static property vs change state |
He became tired vs They made him angry |