Participles¶

In the framework of The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language (CGEL), using an irregular verb like see is the standard method to demonstrate that the Preterite and the Past Participle are two distinct inflectional categories, despite their frequent syncretism (overlap) in regular verbs like walk.

The Preterite: Saw¶

The form saw is the Preterite. In CGEL, this is a finite form.

Property: It carries primary tense (Past).

Syntactic Function: It can function as the head of a main clause without the assistance of an auxiliary verb.

Example: I saw the film yesterday.

Analysis: Saw here is the predicator. It locates the situation in past time independently. You cannot replace it with seen (I seen the film yesterday) in standard formal English because seen lacks the property of primary tense.

The Past Participle: Seen¶

The form seen is the Past Participle. In CGEL, this is a non-finite form.

Property: It has no tense of its own. It is a secondary inflectional form.
Syntactic Function: It cannot head a main clause. It must be licensed by an auxiliary (like have or be) or function as the head of a subordinate clause.
Perfect Example:

I have seen the film. (complement to the auxiliary have)

Passive Example:

The film was seen by millions. (complement to the auxiliary be).

Analysis: Seen indicates the “perfect” or “passive” status, but the actual time of the sentence is determined by the auxiliary (have is present, had is past, will have is future).

Why This Matters for Regular Verbs¶

When you look at a regular verb like walked, CGEL treats it as two different grammatical entities that happen to share one spelling. Using saw vs. seen acts as a “diagnostic” to reveal the hidden structure:

Construction	Diagnostic (Irregular)	Regular Verb	CGEL Category
Main Clause	I saw him.	I walked.	Preterite (Finite)
Perfect	I have seen him.	I have walked.	Past participle (Non-finite)
Passive	He was seen.	He was walked.	Past participle (Non-finite)

Summary of the Distinction¶

The difference is not merely “spelling.” Saw is a “Tensed” verb that can stand alone to make a statement about the past. Seen is a “Non-tensed” verb form that requires a specific syntactic environment (like a perfect or passive construction) to function.

The Gerund-Participle: Seeing¶

Like the past participle (seen), the gerund-participle is non-finite. It does not carry primary tense and cannot function as the predicator of a main clause on its own. Syntactic Functions

CGEL collapses the traditional categories of “gerund” and “present participle” because they are morphologically identical and share the same internal verbal syntax.

Construction	Example	Function (CGEL)
Progressive aspect	She is seeing a specialist.	Gerund-participle as complement of auxiliary be
Subject of a clause	Seeing is believing.	Gerund-participial clause as subject
Adjunct in a clause	Seeing the storm approach, we left.	Supplementary adjunct (non-finite clause)

Integrated Verb Paradigm (See)¶

By adding seeing, we can now map the full distribution of the non-finite forms against the finite preterite.

Form	Label	Finiteness	Primary Use
Saw	Preterite	Finite	Past tense main clause
Seen	Past participle	Non-finite	Perfect or passive
Seeing	Gerund-participle	Non-finite	Progressive or clausal complement

Why Seeing is Non-Finite (The Tense Test)¶

The gerund-participle seeing does not change its form when the time of the situation changes. The temporal orientation is instead carried by a finite auxiliary or inferred from the matrix clause.

She is [seeing him today]. (present time)

She was [seeing him yesterday]. (past time)

She will be [seeing him tomorrow]. (future time)

In all three instances, seeing remains constant. This confirms it is a non-tensed (non-finite) form, distinct from the finite saw, which is intrinsically past.

Comparison of the three forms¶

Form	Label	Finiteness	Primary Use
Saw	Preterite	Finite	Past tense main clause
Seen	Past participle	Non-finite	Perfect or passive
Seeing	Gerund-participle	Non-finite	Progressive or clausal complement

As adjective¶

The Gerund-participle as Adjective¶

A V-ing form is a participial adjective only if it behaves like an adjective rather than a verb. Tests for Adjectival Status:

Gradability: Can it be modified by very or too?
Comparison: Can it take more or most?
Function: Can it appear in both attributive (before a noun) and predicative (after be/become) positions?

Example: Amusing

A very amusing story. (Adjective: modified by very)

The story was more amusing than the last. (Adjective: comparative)

The story was amusing. (Adjective: predicative)

Example: Seeing

~~A very seeing eye.~~ (incorrect: seeing here is a verbal participle acting as an attributive modifier, not a true adjective)

The Past Participle as Adjective¶

Similarly, V-en forms can be true adjectives or purely verbal. Adjectival Past Participles

These often describe a state resulting from an action rather than the action itself.

She was very worried. (adjective: modified by very)

A broken window. (adjective: can be used attributively and expresses a state)

Verbal Past Participles (Passive)¶

In a passive construction, the form is a verb, not an adjective.

The window was broken by the wind. (verb: part of a passive voice construction, followed by a by-phrase agent).

Comparison of Verbal vs. Adjectival Uses¶

Form	Verbal Participle (Verb)	Participial Adjective (Adj)
Gerund-participle	The child is crying.	It was a crying shame.
Past participle	The letter was written.	He looked disappointed.
Modification	Modified by adverbs (quickly)	Modified by very / too
Complements	Can take direct objects	Cannot take direct objects

Why the distinction matters¶

A word like frightened can be ambiguous. In CGEL, we look at the modifiers to decide:

He was greatly frightened by the noise. (verbal: modified by a manner adverb, part of a passive).

He was very frightened]. (adjective: modified by very, describing a psychological state).

Note:

Greatly: A degree adjunct (or manner-related degree adverb). It frequently modifies verbs.
Very: A degree modifier. It is specialized for modifying adjectives and adverbs, but it is grammatically barred from modifying verbs.