Cheat rules



﹅ If an element is inside a noun phrase and it shows possession (X’s / of X), it is never a complement. It is a genitive determiner or modifier.



﹅ of-phrases after nouns like bottle/type/idea are complements



﹅ In a passive, the agent is usually an adverbial and not the object. The “doer” hangs around in a by-phrase but doesn’t take the role of object — it’s more like a witness than a participant.



﹅ In passive verb phrases, pay attention to whether a by-phrase is truly adverbial or actually required by the verb.

This book was written by Orwell.

That behavior can’t be relied on by anyone.



﹅ Verbs (or passives) of **accompaniment, sequence, composition, and emotional reaction ** often require a by-phrase complement.

joined by, preceded by, formed by, impressed by



﹅ Subordinate clauses generally function as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns in a sentence.



﹅ Relative clauses are always subordinate clauses functioning as adjectives. However, not all subordinate clauses are relative clauses: noun and adverbial clauses are common examples.



﹅ A PP is a complement if: It can’t be dropped, can’t be moved freely in the sentence (like temporal adjuncts), dictated by the head (argument), and almost always if it’s not an agent



﹅ A PP is an adjunct when it’s an agent (almost always), typically an adverbial. It’s an agentive adjunct, not a complement, because it is optional. In passive constructions, “by + NP” = agentive, usually an adjunct (adverbial).

The letter was sent by Mary → remove by Mary → The letter was sent ✅ → adjunct She is aware of the problem → remove of the problem → She is aware ❌ → complement



﹅ Unless the verb requires the PP:

A plan was agreed on yesterday

The speech was followed by applause



﹅ Complements are only selected by the head of a phrase: verb or adjective



﹅ Verbs of making (e.g., “to make,” “to create”) or naming (e.g., “to name,” “to call,” “to elect”) often attract an object complement:

To make her happy



﹅ However, many other verbs also take an object complement:

To consider someone stupid To paint something purple



﹅ When uncertain whether a word is a determiner or an adjective: If it comes before a noun, it’s a determiner. If it stands alone, it’s a pronoun.



﹅ A relative clause must modify a noun and typically begins with who/which/that. This clause modifies the action, not a noun



﹅ To test any clause: remove it. If the sentence still makes sense → likely a relative clause (or other optional modifier).
If the sentence loses essential meaning → likely a complement clause.



﹅ Distinguishing Non-Restrictive Relative Clauses from Post-positive Adjectival Phrases: If a relative pronoun and a verb exist (or can be inserted), it’s likely a NRRC.\ A clause or a phrase?
Also, the PPAP may be essential.



﹅ Who, whom, whose, which, that → always relative pronouns, introduce relative clauses
(‘That’ has other roles, see ref tables)



﹅ Where, when → can function like pronouns in relative clauses, but technically are relative adverbs because they indicate place or time.



﹅ Why → only function is as a relative adverb; There’s no “who/which” equivalent for reasons.



﹅ Postpositive adjectival phrase (or emphatic postmodifier) add evaluative emphasis to the noun before them — they don’t describe which noun, so they are not relative clause, but adjectives in apposition

What we are seeing are not their faults, pure and simple, but …



﹅ If the modifier has a relative pronoun or relative adverb (who, whom, whose, which, that, where, when, why) and a verb, it is a relative clause.



﹅ If it lacks a relative pronoun and/or verb, it is just a postmodifier/adjectival phrase, even if it adds descriptive information.



﹅ If the segment after a conjunction lacks its own subject + finite verb and cannot stand alone, it is part of the same clause, even if it looks like a contrast.



﹅ Element share the subject: The element has no new subject. It shares a subject, so it belongs to the same clause. Usually adjectival (postpositive adjectival participial phrases).

The man sitting at the table is my uncle.

The man is my uncle (adjective, we can drop it)



﹅ Element relates to the subject: Modifies a noun, has own subject + verb. Usually another clause. Helps identify non-restrictive relative clauses or other post-nominal clauses.

The man, who is sitting at the table, is my uncle.



﹅ Does “that” refer to a noun or pronoun?

  • Yes → Functions as the relative pronoun → adjective/relative clause.

The book that I read (noun, modifies book)

  • No → Complementizer → introduces a content clause, which answers“what” or completes a verb/adjective/noun. “That” signals the subordinate clause

We are aware that it could sound patronizing (completing aware)



﹅ The verb after “that”:

  • Finite verb (tense or modal) → finite content clause.

  • Non-finite verb (to + verb, -ing) → non-finite clause.

She said that she was tired (finite)

I regret that leaving so early caused trouble (non-finite)



﹅ A complement completes its own head, not necessarily the verb.

  • Verb head → verb complement

  • Adjective head → adjective complement

  • Noun head → noun complement

You find the head first — then ask: what word or phrase is required to finish its meaning or structure? That’s the complement.



﹅ A that-clause can only be adjectival (i.e. a relative clause) if it modifies a noun — not if it completes a verb or adjective.



﹅ Syntactic well-formedness of the clause ≠ syntactic completeness of the predicate head.

The clause is grammatical, but the predicate (headed by aware) isn’t structurally complete according to the adjective’s valency.



﹅ Can you ask “what?” or “whom?” of the verb? “Try what?” → answer: “to provide hints and cheat rules” → complement



﹅ True relative clauses are typically headed by who, which, that, or sometimes whom/whose.



﹅ Remove the element:

  • Sentence still makes sense → likely an adjunct.

  • Sentence becomes incomplete → likely a complement.