Clause: licensing cheatsheet

In CGEL, lexical licensing is pervasive rather than exceptional. There is no small closed list of “special cases”. A large part of syntax consists of determining which complements a head licenses.

The deeper CGEL generalization is that subcategorization (sometimes called complement licensing or valency) is one of the central organizing principles of English syntax. Virtually every major lexical category—verbs, adjectives, nouns, and prepositions—can impose restrictions on the complements it licenses.

With clauses, the question is:

Many subordinate clause constructions in English are not freely available, but instead require lexical licensing by the matrix head?

Tip

For finite subordinate clauses, CGEL has only a small number of clause categories whose occurrence is determined by the governing predicate. The principal ones are interrogative, exclamative, and subjunctive clauses. Declarative-indicative clauses are largely the default.

A large fraction of English clause taxonomy exists precisely because different heads license different subordinate-clause constructions.

For example, the distinction between:

• declarative content clause

• interrogative content clause

• subjunctive content clause

• infinitival clause

• gerund-participial clause

• bare infinitival clause

** These categories matter because predicates differ in whether they license them.**

Core principle

When a sentence feels grammatical but sounds suspicious, ask:

”Does the governing word license this subordinate-clause construction?"

The clause itself may be perfectly well-formed, yet ungrammatical in that environment.

Declarative content clause (default)

Construction:

that + finite indicative clause

that she left

that they are ready

that he will come

Common licensors:

• know

• think

• believe

• say

• claim

• realize

I know that she left.

I believe that she left.

They claim that she left.

Tip

This is the default complement clause of English. Assume it is available unless you know otherwise.

Interrogative Content Clause

Construction:

whether-clause or interrogative clause

whether she left

where she lives

who came

why he resigned

Common licensors:

Questions:

• ask

• wonder

• inquire

Knowledge / Discovery:

• know

• remember

• discover

• determine

• find out

I wonder whether she left.

I know where she lives.

We discovered who did it.

I believe whether she left.

I think where she lives.

Tip

Not every verb that licenses a declarative clause licenses an interrogative clause.

Mandative Subjunctive Content Clause

Construction:

that + subject + plain-form verb

that she leave

that he be present

that they have enough time

Common licensors:

Directives:

• insist

• demand

• order

• command

Recommendations:

• suggest

• recommend

• propose

Requirements:

• require

• stipulate

Mandative adjectives:

• essential

• necessary

• important

• vital

I insist that she leave.

They recommended that he be appointed.

It is essential that she be informed.

I know that she leave.

I think that she leave.

Tip

Use the subjunctive mainly with recommendations, requirements, and directives.

Gerund-participial clause

Construction:

V-ing clause

leaving early

swimming

answering questions

Common licensors:

enjoy avoid keep finish postpone consider

I enjoy swimming.

She avoided answering.

They postponed leaving.

I enjoy to swim.

She avoided to answer.

Tip

Many activity-oriented verbs prefer an -ing clause.

To-infinitival clause

Construction:

to + plain form

• to leave

• to study

• to be

Common licensors:

• want

• hope

• decide

• plan

• intend

• attempt

I want to leave.

She decided to stay.

They hope to win.

I want leaving.

They decided staying.

Tip

Verbs expressing intention, desire, plans, or goals often prefer a to-infinitive.

NP + to-infinitival clause

Construction:

NP + to-infinitive

her to leave him to stay them to help

Common licensors:

• want

• expect

• persuade

• encourage

• tell

• advise

I wanted her to leave.

We persuaded him to stay.

They encouraged her to apply.

I wanted her leave.

We persuaded him stay.

Tip

Most verbs that take an object plus an infinitival clause require to.

7. Bare Infinitival Clause

Construction:

NP + plain-form verb

her leave him go them arrive

Common licensors:

Perception verbs:

• see

• hear

• watch

• feel

Causatives:

• make

• let

I saw her leave.

We heard him sing.

They made him leave.

She let him go.

I wanted her leave.

We persuaded him stay.

Tip

Bare infinitives are highly restricted. If you’re unsure, assume English wants to.

Small Clause

Construction:

NP + predicative

him intelligent her a genius the room empty

Common licensors:

• consider

• find

• make

• keep

I consider him intelligent.

We found the room empty.

They kept the door open.

I know him intelligent.

She believes him honest.

Tip

Small clauses are a specialized construction licensed by a limited set of predicates.

Clause licensing by verbs 80/20

This is leaky generalization: The ultimate licensing is lexical, specific to each word.

Semantic family	Typical construction
Knowledge, belief	Declarative content clause
Questions, inquiry	Interrogative content clause
Desire, intention	To-infinitival clause
Enjoyment, avoidance, completion	Gerund-participial clause
Recommendation, requirement	Subjunctive content clause
Perception, causation	Bare infinitival clause

See also

Grammar lists, verbs clause licensing cheatsheet

Danger zones (highest ESL risk)

Construction	Typical Error
Interrogative content clause	I think where she lives
Mandative subjunctive	I know that she leave
Gerund vs infinitive	I enjoy to swim
Bare infinitive	I wanted her leave
NP + infinitive	I persuaded him stay

Most advanced ESL mistakes are not failures of clause formation.

They are failures of clause licensing:

The subordinate clause is grammatical in itself, but the governing word does not license it.

That’s exactly what happens in:

I know that she leave. I insist that she leave.

The difference lies not in the clause, but in the licenser.