Modality: Lexical verbs carrying modality

Common

Lexical verb	Modality type	Typical meaning	Example
seem	Epistemic (evidential)	Appearance, epistemic possibility	She seems to understand.
appear	Epistemic (evidential)	Appearance, inference	He appears to be upset.
look	Epistemic (evidential)	Evidential appearance	It looks as if it’s going to rain.
sound	Epistemic (evidential)	Evidential appearance	That sounds reasonable.
suggest	Epistemic (evidential)	Evidence leading to inference	The results suggest that the treatment works.
indicate	Epistemic (evidential)	Evidence supporting a conclusion	The data indicate that demand is falling.
imply	Epistemic (evidential)	Indirect evidence	His silence implies agreement.
predict	Epistemic	Future expectation	Experts predict inflation will fall.
expect	Epistemic	Expectation	We expect prices to rise.
believe	Epistemic	Personal epistemic stance	I believe he is right.
think	Epistemic	Personal judgement	I think she’s correct.
suppose	Epistemic	Tentative judgement	I suppose it could work.
doubt	Epistemic	Low probability	I doubt they’ll agree.
hope	Bouletic (desire)	Desirability + possibility	We hope to finish today.
fear	Bouletic (negative expectation)	Negative expectation	I fear we are too late.

Note

“Hope” and “fear” are often treated as bouletic (desire-related) rather than purely epistemic, because they express what is wanted or dreaded rather than simply how likely something is.

Fear also carries an epistemic implication (the speaker thinks the event is plausible), but its primary modal flavour is desirability.

By semantic group

Group	Verbs
Appearance / evidentiality	seem, appear, look, sound
Evidence-based inference	suggest, indicate, imply
Belief / judgement	think, believe, suppose, doubt
Prediction / expectation	predict, expect
Hope / fear	hope, fear

By modality:

Epistemic

Degree of certainty	Modal auxiliary	Lexical verb equivalent	Example
High certainty / Deduction	must	demonstrate, prove, establish, deduce, confirm	Modal: The system must fail. Lexical: The data demonstrates that the system is failing.
Probability / Expectation	should	project, anticipate, expect, suggest, tend	Modal: Prices should stabilize soon. Lexical: Analysts project that prices will stabilize soon.
Possibility / Appearance	may, might	appear, seem, imply, indicate, hint	Modal: The theory might be wrong. Lexical: The theory appears to be wrong.
Speculation / Suspicion	may	suspect, speculate, hypothesize, surmise	Modal: He may have hidden motives. Lexical: Critics suspect he has hidden motives.
Contested claim	would	claim, purport, profess, assert	Modal: It would solve the issue. Lexical: The reform purports to solve the issue.

Deontic

Modality type	Modal auxiliary	Lexical verb equivalent	Example
Obligation	must	require, compel, oblige, demand, dictate	Must: Citizens must pay taxes. Lexical: The law compels citizens to pay taxes.
Prohibition	must not	forbid, prohibit, ban	Modal: You must not enter. Lexical: Security policy prohibits entry.
Permission	may	permit, allow, authorize	Modal: You may proceed. Lexical: The committee authorizes you to proceed.

Dynamic

Modality type	Modal auxiliary	Lexical verb equivalent	Example
Ability / Success	can	manage, succeed, possess (the capacity)	Modal: She can solve the equation. Lexical: She managed to solve the equation.
Inability / Failure	cannot	fail, struggle, lack (the capacity)	Modal: The bridge cannot hold the weight. Lexical: The bridge fails to support the weight.
Capacity / Tendency	will	tend, enable, foster	Modal: Institutions will protect themselves. Lexical: Institutions tend to protect themselves