Irrealis moods

Moods

Subjunctive

Event is considered unlikely (mainly used in dependent clauses).

Conditional

Event depends upon another condition.

Optative

Event is hoped, expected, or awaited.

Jussive

Event is pleaded, implored or asked.

Potential

Event is probable or considered likely

Imperative/Prohibitive

Event is directly ordered or requested by the speaker.
Event is directly prohibited by the speaker.

Desiderative

Event is desired/wished by a participant in the state of affairs referred to in the utterance

Dubitative

Event is uncertain, doubtful, dubious.

Hypothetical

Event is hypothetical, or it is counterfactual, but possible

Presumptive

Event is assumed, presupposed by the speaker.

Permissive

Event is permitted by the speaker

Hortative

Event is exhorted, implored, insisted or encouraged by speaker.

Eventive

Event is likely but depends upon a condition; a combination of the potential and conditional.

Preactive

Event is requested by the speaker.

Volitive

Event is desired, wished or feared by the speaker

Interrogative

Event is asked or questioned by the speaker

Benedictive

Event is requested or wished by the speaker in a polite or honorific fashion.

Concessive

Event is presupposed or admitted as part of a refutation.

Prescriptive

Event is prescribed by the speaker (though not demanded), but with the expectation that it will occur.

Apprehensive

Event is warned against happening.

Mood examples in English

Mood	Core Meaning	Simple English Example	English Construction / Verb Form	Why This Construction Fits
Subjunctive	Required, mandated, necessary	It is essential that she be present.	Mandative subjunctive: finite content clause with the plain form.	The plain form suppresses ordinary tense/agreement and presents the event as a requirement rather than a fact.
Conditional	Depends on a condition	If it rains, we will stay inside.	if-clause + main clause.	The construction explicitly links one event to the fulfillment of another condition.
Optative	Hope or expectation	May you succeed.	Formulaic may + bare infinitive.	May presents the event as desired rather than actual.
Jussive	Request, plea, exhortation	Let him speak.	let + NP + bare infinitive.	The speaker seeks to bring about an event without directly commanding the participant.
Potential	Likely or possible	She may arrive soon.	Modal auxiliary (may, might, could).	Modal verbs naturally encode possibility rather than actuality.
Imperative	Direct command	Close the door.	Imperative clause with plain form.	The clause directly attempts to cause the event.
Prohibitive	Direct prohibition	Don’t touch that.	Negative imperative.	The speaker directly attempts to prevent the event.
Desiderative	Desire of a participant	I want to travel abroad.	Verb of desire + infinitival clause.	The matrix verb (want) explicitly identifies the participant’s desire toward the event.
Dubitative	Doubt or uncertainty	Perhaps he is mistaken.	Adverbs (perhaps) or modals (might).	These forms mark the proposition as uncertain rather than established.
Hypothetical	Imagined or counterfactual situation	Suppose you won the lottery.	Suppose clause; often modal remoteness.	The construction invites consideration of a non-actual scenario.
Presumptive	Assumed by the speaker	He must be at home by now.	Epistemic modal (must).	The modal marks the proposition as inferred rather than directly known.
Permissive	Permission granted	You may leave now.	Permission modal (may, can).	The modal explicitly removes a restriction on the event.
Hortative	Encouragement including the speaker	Let’s begin.	let’s + bare infinitive.	The construction proposes a joint course of action involving the speaker.
Eventive	Likely if a condition is met	If the weather improves, the crops should thrive.	Conditional construction + likelihood modal.	The event is presented as contingent yet probable.
Preactive	Request for future action	Please send me the report tomorrow.	Polite imperative or modal request.	The construction seeks to influence a future action without issuing a strong command.
Volitive	Speaker’s wish, desire, or fear	I hope she returns safely.	Verb expressing wish/fear + content clause.	The matrix verb directly expresses the speaker’s attitude toward the event.
Interrogative	Questioning	Did she arrive yet?	Interrogative clause with inversion.	The speaker requests information about whether the event occurred.
Benedictive	Formal blessing or good wish	May God bless you.	Formulaic may + bare infinitive.	The event is presented as a desired outcome, often invoking a higher power.
Concessive	Admission before refutation	Even if he is right, we should proceed cautiously.	Concessive clause (even if, although).	The construction temporarily grants a proposition while denying its relevance to the conclusion.
Prescriptive	Recommendation with expectation	You should submit the application today.	Deontic modal (should, ought to).	The modal presents the event as advisable rather than mandatory.
Apprehensive	Fear or warning about a possible event	Be careful lest you fall.	Warning expression; often lest + plain form.	The construction highlights an undesirable event that the speaker seeks to prevent.

How English express moods

Family	Why English Uses These Constructions
Commands (Imperative, Prohibitive, Jussive, Hortative, Preactive)	They are all attempts to influence behavior, so English uses directive constructions (close the door, let him speak, please send…).
Requirements & Recommendations (Subjunctive, Permissive, Prescriptive)	They regulate what ought to happen, so English uses deontic devices (be present, may leave, should apply).
Possibility & Knowledge (Potential, Dubitative, Presumptive)	They concern certainty and evidence, so English relies on modal auxiliaries (may, might, must).
Desire & Wishes (Optative, Desiderative, Volitive, Benedictive, Apprehensive)	They express attitudes toward events, so English uses verbs of wishing/fearing or the formulaic may.
Alternative Worlds (Conditional, Hypothetical, Eventive, Concessive)	They describe events in relation to assumptions or conditions, so English uses subordinate clauses (if, suppose, even if).
Information Seeking (Interrogative)	It is not about the event itself but about obtaining information regarding it.

Mapping modal verbs to moods

Moods centered mood-modal table

Mood	Typical English Devices	Modal Domain
Subjunctive	must, should, mandative subjunctive (that she be)	Deontic necessity
Conditional	if, would, will, could	Conditionality
Optative	may, wish, hope	Bouletic (wish)
Jussive	let, must, should	Directive / deontic
Potential	may, might, could, can	Epistemic or dynamic possibility
Imperative	no modal; imperative clause	Directive
Prohibitive	mustn’t, don’t	Deontic prohibition
Desiderative	want, wish, would like	Bouletic (desire)
Dubitative	may, might, perhaps, possibly	Epistemic uncertainty
Hypothetical	would, could, might	Remote modality
Presumptive	must, should, ought to	Epistemic inference
Permissive	may, can	Deontic permission
Hortative	let’s, shall we	Directive
Eventive	should, will, may (in conditionals)	Conditional + epistemic
Preactive	could you, would you, please	Directive
Volitive	hope, wish, fear	Bouletic
Interrogative	modal depends on question	Not inherently modal
Benedictive	may	Bouletic
Concessive	even if, although	Not inherently modal
Prescriptive	should, ought to	Weak deontic
Apprehensive	might, lest, for fear that	Epistemic possibility + negative desire

English centered modal-mood table

English Modal Center	Related Moods
must	Subjunctive, Jussive, Prohibitive, Presumptive
should / ought to	Prescriptive, Eventive, weak Subjunctive
may	Potential, Permissive, Optative, Benedictive
might	Dubitative, Potential, Apprehensive
would	Conditional, Hypothetical
could	Potential, Hypothetical, Preactive
let	Jussive, Hortative
hope / wish / want / fear	Volitive, Optative, Desiderative, Apprehensive

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English modal verbs by semantic territory

may

The modal most strongly associated with irrealis meanings.

She may arrive soon (potential) You may leave now. (permissive) May you prosper (optative) May god bless you (benedictive) It may be true (dubitative)

Core meaning:

The proposition is possible, permitted, or wished for, but not asserted as fact.

might

Typically expresses a more remote or uncertain possibility than may.

She might arrive later. (potential)

He might be wrong. (dubitative)

In different circumstances, she might succeed. (hypothetical)

Core meaning:

The speaker assigns a lower degree of commitment to the proposition.

must

Has two major uses: deontic necessity and epistemic inference.

Applicants must submit a form. (Requirement, subjunctive oriented)

You must leave immediately. (directive insistence)

He must be home by now. (Presumptive)

Core meaning:

The proposition is either necessary or strongly inferred.

Note

English “must” does not distinguish requirement and command grammatically.

should

One of the most versatile irrealis markers.

You should apply. (prescriptive)

If conditions improve, production should increase. (eventive, should is stronger so the possibility of the event to occur is higher)

They should be home by now. (presumptive)

It is important that she should attend. (mandative, especially BrE)

Core meaning:

The proposition is advisable, expected, or probable.

would

The principal marker of modal remoteness.

I would go if I could. (conditional)

Imagine what would happen if we failed. (hypothetical)

Would that it were true! (hypothetical)

Core meaning:

The proposition is viewed from a non-actual or dependent perspective.

could

Bridges possibility, ability, and hypotheticality.

She could arrive tomorrow. (potential)

If we hurried, we could catch the train. (hypothetical)

Could you help me? (preactive request)

Core meaning:

The proposition is possible given certain circumstances.

can

Primarily expresses ability or permission.

You can leave now. (permissive)

This can happen. (dynamic potential)

She can swim. (ability)

Core meaning:

The subject has the ability, opportunity, or permission for the event.

Common mandative verbs

Semantic class	Examples
Directives	insist, demand, order, command
Recommendations	suggest, recommend, propose
Requirements	require, stipulate
Importance/necessity adjectives	essential, important, vital