Tricky terms¶

CGEL¶

In CGEL, you cleanly separate:

form → e.g. PP

function → Adjunct

semantic type (optional) → locative

For words, separate lexical category of the word itself from how if functions in the sentence.

Terms¶

Complement¶

A complement is simply a dependent licensed by a head, and the head can belong to several categories.

Not necessarily complement the verb (but often do).

Required (or strongly expected) by the head to complete its sense.

Simple grammar labels roles by meaning or surface pattern (e.g. “linking verb,” “object complement”), while CGEL defines them strictly by syntactic selection and head–dependent relations.

Something counts as a complement in CGEL only if it is selected and determined by a head.

Otherwise, even if it feels semantically important, it is analyzed as a determiner, modifier, or adjunct.

Head
 └── Dependents
      ├── Complements (Required or strongly expected)
      └── Adjuncts (Modifiers, extra info)

Complementizer¶

A lexical category (a kind of word).
A complementizer is the head of a subordinate clause.
It introduces a clause that itself functions as a complement (or sometimes adjunct).

This is not a CGEL term. CGEL prefers “subordinators”, by their function: introduce subordinate clause, whether as a complement or not.

Mapping “complementizer” to CGEL:

Traditional term	CGEL term	Example	Function
complementizer	subordinator	I know that she left	complement of verb
complementizer	subordinator	the claim that he lied	complement/modifier of noun
complementizer	subordinator	She is afraid that he will come	complement of adjective

CGEL treats it consistently — words like that / whether / if is always a subordinator, regardless of whether it attaches to a verb, noun, or adjective, regardless if the subordinate clause is a complement or

Coordinates¶

CGEL term for the subparts linked by coordination. Can be clauses or phrases, like:

Jack and Jill went up the hill

Jill and Jack went up the hill (same)

Determiner¶

Determines or specifies the noun. It’s kinda adjectival in function but not true adjective (you can’t grade it)

Fused relative clause¶

Fusion occurs when the head of an NP and the relative element are the same word

Gerund-participle¶

A verb form ending in -ing that functions as a noun in a sentence

Infinitive¶

infinitive is the lemma, which is the fundamental, uninflected base form of a verb. It’s either a bare infinitive which is the exact base form (see, go), or to-infinitive (to see, to go)

Matrix clause¶

A clause that contains another clause within it as a constituent. It can be a main clause, but not necessarily: subordinate clause can also contain another clause, and if a main clause does not contain another, it’s not a matrix clause.
Containment must be syntactic - not supplemental or parenthetical

Modifier¶

Optional, adding extra detail.

Nominative case¶

For most words, the nominative case doesn’t change their form at all. It’s marked only by position (being the subject) rather than by inflection

Non-finite¶

Infinitive is a specific verb form, infinitival describes anything related to that form, and non-finite is the broad category that includes infinitives alongside participles and gerunds

Noun¶

Can function as subject, object, and complement

Object¶

An object is: an NP complement of a verb. Only verbs license objects, and only NPs can be objects.

Crucially:

Category: NP
Function: object
Head it depends on: verb

If any of those fail → not an object.

Participle¶

A non-finite verb form that can function as the head of a non-finite clause or as part of a verb phrase. Such clauses often function as modifiers similar to adjectives.

Some participle can form verb tense or a passive voice

It retains verbal properties:

Taking complements (usually even when it’s nominalized)
Being modified by adverbs

You can not identify the tense or if it’s an adjective or noun from the participle itself, without the auxiliary verb or placement in the sentence/clause/phrase

Saw (tense clear, nothing else needed)
Seeing (NP, e.g. singing?)
Seen (AdjP? tensed perfect?)

Nominalized participle is a participle that syntactically functions as noun. Can be modified by an adjective, not by adverb.

Perfect¶

The name of a term* in a grammatical system, a type of past tense.

Perfective¶

Applies (as far as English is concerned) to a kind of semantic interpretation. It’s not a grammatical notion.

Pied-Piping¶

Moving the preposition with it’s object (the opposite of stranding). The pronoun “pipes” the preposition.

Possessive adjectives vs. pronouns¶

Adjectives: my, your, their etc

Pronouns: mine, yours, theirs etc

Predicate¶

The part of a sentence (or clause) that tells us something about the subject —usually what the subject does, is, or has.
In other words: Everything that is not the subject.

Clause = Subject + Predicate

Predicate is a clause-level function, not a constituent type. It is not a single node in CGEL tree structure, but a descriptive cover term. The predicate is everything in the clause except the subject.

Predicate nominative¶

A noun or pronoun that follows a linking verb (usually be, become, seem, etc.). It renames, identifies, or classifies the subject.

Predicator¶

Predicator is a function, not a category. It is assigned to the head verb of a clause.

The predicator is the verbal head that determines the clause’s valency licenses complements

Realised by a VP.
Its head is the lexical verb (or copular verb in copular clauses).
It is the element that licenses complements and determines clause type.

Predicative¶

A clausal function: a constituent that ascribes a property, state, or role to an NP within the clause. It may be primary, predicated of the subject, or secondary, predicated of the object.

Preterite tense¶

Preterite tense != past simple

The preterite tense is the inflectional past tense of the finite verb.

It locates the situation before the time of speaking (or another reference point, depending on context) and is marked by the preterite form of the finite verb.

Preterite is a tense.
Past simple is a verb form/construction in traditional grammar.

Preposition¶

Some take obligatory NP complements, others take optional NP complements. Some take no complement at all (see list)

Proper name¶

Proper name = NP used as a name.

A proper name is an NP used to identify a specific entity by conventional naming.

It is a referential notion, not a lexical category.

Proper noun¶

A proper noun is a subclass of noun that conventionally denotes a unique entity and typically:

Occurs without a determiner
Is singular
Resists pluralisation
Resists restrictive modification
It is a lexical category.

Raised object (raising)¶

The subject of a lower infinitival clause appears as a matrix object/complement of a transparent verb. The higher verb predicates over the lower proposition rather than assigning the NP its own semantic role.

Raised subject (raising)¶

The subject of a lower clause appears as the subject of a higher clause, typically with a transparent verb and a non-finite complement. The higher verb does not assign a semantic role to the subject.

Tense with more than one verb¶

Tense belongs to the finite verb, not to the whole verb phrase.

His/Her¶

Her\

Object form: used as an object of a verb or preposition:

I saw her at the station. (direct object)
Give it to her. (object of preposition to)

Possessive determiner (aka “possessive adjective”), used before a noun to show possession:

This is her book.
That’s her crown.

Possessive pronoun: replaces the whole noun phrase:

This book is hers. (= her book)

His/Him\

Object form: I saw him
Possessive determiner: I saw his car
Possessive pronoun: That’s his car

Confusing his/her\

Object form/possessive determiner/possessive pronoun:

Her:

her/hers/her: Same for possessive determiner and object form

His:

his/his/him: his, same for possessive determiner and pronoun

Genitive: “Genitive” refers to case, not to lexical category. Only nouns and NPs headed by nouns inflect for genitive case:

John’s car

Genitive determinatives and genitive pronouns are separate lexical categories.

Dependent genitive is determinative. Independent genitive is a pronoun

This my book (determinative) This book is mine (pronoun)

Interrogative Adverbs¶

why, where, when, how

When - time
Where - place
Why - reason
How - manner
How - Quantity, amount, degree

The quirky “How”
Can be used to ask about matters related to manner (e.g., How quickly?), time (e.g., How soon?), quantity (e.g., How many?), amount (e.g., How much?), and degree (e.g., How good?).

How quickly can you get home? (manner)

How many sweets have you eaten? (Quantity)

Hints\

The answer to a question posed with an interrogative adverb will always be something functioning as an adverb (single word adverb or adverbial phrase/clause)

When should I remove the tin foil from the muffins? Immediately

Distributive determiners¶

determiners that refer to individual members of a group, one at a time or collectively.

each

Each student received a certificate. (Emphasizes every individual member separately)

every

Every child loves to play. (Emphasizes all members of the group, collectively)

either Either option is fine. (Refers to one of two possibilities)

neither Neither answer is correct. (Refers to not one nor the other of two options)

any Sometimes considered distributive in certain contexts) → Any student can apply.