Cheat rules



﹅ If an element is inside a noun phrase and it shows possession (X’s / of X), it is never a complement. It is a genitive determiner or modifier.



﹅ of-phrases after nouns like bottle/type/idea are complements



﹅ In a passive, the agent is usually an adverbial and not the object. The “doer” hangs around in a by-phrase but doesn’t take the role of object — it’s more like a witness than a participant.



﹅ In passive verb phrases, pay attention to whether a by-phrase is truly adverbial or actually required by the verb.

This book was written by Orwell.

That behavior can’t be relied on by anyone.



﹅ Verbs (or passives) of **accompaniment, sequence, composition, and emotional reaction ** often require a by-phrase complement.

joined by, preceded by, formed by, impressed by



﹅ Subordinate clauses generally function as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns in a sentence.



﹅ Relative clauses are always subordinate clauses functioning as adjectives. Not all subordinate clauses are relative clauses: noun and adverbial clauses are common examples.



﹅ A PP is a complement if: It can’t be dropped, can’t be moved freely in the sentence (like temporal adjuncts), dictated by the head (argument), and almost always if it’s not an agent



﹅ A PP is an adjunct when it’s an agent (almost always), typically an adverbial. It’s an agentive adjunct, not a complement, because it is optional. In passive constructions, “by + NP” = agentive, usually an adjunct (adverbial).

The letter was sent by Mary → remove by Mary → The letter was sent ✅ → adjunct She is aware of the problem → remove of the problem → She is aware ❌ → complement



﹅ Unless the verb requires the PP:

A plan was agreed on yesterday

The speech was followed by applause



﹅ Complements are only selected by the head of a phrase: verb or adjective



﹅ Verbs of making (e.g., “to make,” “to create”) or naming (e.g., “to name,” “to call,” “to elect”) often attract an object complement:

To make her happy



﹅ However, many other verbs also take an object complement:

To consider someone stupid To paint something purple



﹅ When uncertain whether a word is a determiner or an adjective: If it limits or specifies the noun, it’s a determiner. If the element *describes the noun, it’s an adjective.



﹅ The standard English noun phrase order is: [Determiner] + [Adjective(s)] + [Noun]



﹅ A relative clause must modify a noun and typically begins with who/which/that.



﹅ To test any clause: remove it. If the sentence still makes sense → likely a relative clause (or other optional modifier).
If the sentence loses essential meaning → likely a complement clause.



﹅ Distinguishing Non-Restrictive Relative Clauses from Post-positive Adjectival Phrases: If a relative pronoun and a verb exist (or can be inserted), it’s likely a NRRC.\ A clause or a phrase?
Also, the PPAP may be essential.



﹅ Who, whom, whose, which, that → always relative pronouns, introduce relative clauses
(‘That’ has other roles, see ref tables)



﹅ Where, when → can function like pronouns in relative clauses, but technically are relative adverbs because they indicate place or time.



﹅ Why → only function is as a relative adverb; There’s no “who/which” equivalent for reasons.



﹅ Postpositive adjectival phrase (or emphatic postmodifier) add evaluative emphasis to the noun before them — they don’t describe which noun, so they are not relative clause, but adjectives in apposition

What we are seeing are not their faults, pure and simple, but …



﹅ If the modifier has a relative pronoun or relative adverb (who, whom, whose, which, that, where, when, why) and a verb, it is a relative clause.



﹅ If it lacks a relative pronoun and/or verb, it is just a postmodifier/adjectival phrase, even if it adds descriptive information.



﹅ If the segment after a conjunction lacks its own subject + finite verb and cannot stand alone, it is part of the same clause, even if it looks like a contrast.



﹅ Element share the subject: The element has no new subject. It shares a subject, so it belongs to the same clause. Usually adjectival (postpositive adjectival participial phrases).

The man sitting at the table is my uncle.

The man is my uncle (adjective, we can drop it)



﹅ Element relates to the subject: Modifies a noun, has own subject + verb. Usually another clause. Helps identify non-restrictive relative clauses or other post-nominal clauses.

The man, who is sitting at the table, is my uncle.



﹅ Does “that” refer to a noun or pronoun?

  • Yes → Functions as the relative pronoun → adjective/relative clause.

The book that I read (noun, modifies book)

  • No → Complementizer → introduces a content clause, which answers“what” or completes a verb/adjective/noun. “That” signals the subordinate clause

We are aware that it could sound patronizing (completing aware)



﹅ The verb after “that”:

  • Finite verb (tense or modal) → finite content clause.

  • Non-finite verb (to + verb, -ing) → non-finite clause.

She said that she was tired (finite)

I regret that leaving so early caused trouble (non-finite)



﹅ A complement completes its own head, not necessarily the verb.

  • Verb head → verb complement

  • Adjective head → adjective complement

  • Noun head → noun complement

You find the head first — then ask: what word or phrase is required to finish its meaning or structure? That’s the complement.



﹅ A that-clause can only be adjectival (i.e. a relative clause) if it modifies a noun — not if it completes a verb or adjective.



﹅ Syntactic well-formedness of the clause ≠ syntactic completeness of the predicate head.

The clause is grammatical, but the predicate (headed by aware) isn’t structurally complete according to the adjective’s valency.



﹅ Can you ask “what?” or “whom?” of the verb? “Try what?” → answer: “to provide hints and cheat rules” → complement



﹅ True relative clauses are typically headed by who, which, that, or sometimes whom/whose.



﹅ Remove the element:

  • Sentence still makes sense → likely an adjunct.

  • Sentence becomes incomplete → likely a complement.



﹅ If an element functions as a noun, ends in -ing, and takes a direct object or is modified by an adverb, it is likely a gerund. Key point: it retains a verbal sense of action or process.



﹅ If you can’t say the name without a “The” (like The Sahara), you are looking at a Proper Name.

If the “The” feels optional or wrong (like The Paris), you are looking at a Proper Noun.

1 Word = Proper Noun (and also a Proper Name).

2+ Words = Proper Name (usually containing a Proper Noun).



﹅ Complex preposition (participle-preposition): If it heads a PP, takes only an NP, has no subject, and expresses a reason/cause, it is a preposition.



﹅ In CGEL, when a word’s only job is to express a relationship (like causality), it behaves as a preposition.



﹅ For a preposition, we look at the internal bond between the preposition and its specific object



﹅ If you can swap the preposition for almost any other spatial or temporal marker (in, on, under, during) without changing the core meaning of the verb, it is an adjunct. Stranding an adjunct preposition often sounds “loose” or ungrammatical.



﹅ If you cannot change the preposition without fundamentally breaking the meaning of the verb, it is a complement (preposition stranding is the most natural choice because the verb “holds” the preposition in place)



﹅ Nominative pronouns occur as subjects of finite clauses. Non-finite clauses do not assign nominative case, so the “subject” pronoun is usually accusative.

I saw her yesterday (finite, nominative) For me to succeed would be amazing (non finite)

Some verbs allow a non-finite clause as their object, and they assign accusative case to the subject of that clause, instead of the subject keeping nominative.

I saw him leave the room (him subject of leave, but because of saw)

Non-finite clause = clause where the verb is not marked for tense. With infinitive:

For me to succeed would be amazing (me logical subject, but with infinitive to succeed)



﹅ Outside of relative clauses, relative adverbs are just ordinary adverbs (interrogative or clause-initial). Inside RCs, they act as relativizers.



﹅ Fused relative clauses typically use “what”. Very simple test: add the word “else” after “what”. Although interrogative what and fused “what” look the same, else fits only to interrogative

I don’t know what else she is doing

~~I don’t like what else she’s doing~~