Participles Usage¶
Why participles are important¶
Participles are “special” because they allow a verb to head a clause that functions in ways typically associated with other categories, while maintaining internal verbal syntax.
Internal Syntax (Verbal): It can take an object () and be modified by an adverb
Breaking the vase (take an object)
Running quickly (modified by an adverb)
External Syntax (Non-Verbal): The entire clause can function as a subject or a modifier
Reading books is fun (subject)
The broken window (modifier)
Non-Finite Clause Structure¶
Participles allow for the creation of non-finite clauses, which provide a more concise method of embedding information than finite subordinate clauses.
Functional Versatility¶
Participles enable verbs to function in positions typically reserved for other categories (such as adjectives or nouns) while retaining their verbal properties (such as taking direct objects or being modified by adverbs).
Action¶
Past participles as adjective, often describe a state resulting from an action rather than the action itself.
Participle by type¶
Form |
Primary Construction |
Example |
|---|---|---|
Gerund-participle |
Progressive aspect |
She is working. |
Gerund-participle |
Pre-adjunct |
Working late, he felt tired. |
Past participle |
Perfect aspect |
They have finished. |
Past participle |
Passive voice |
The work was finished. |
The Gerund-Participle (The -ing form)¶
CGEL collapses the traditional distinction between “gerund” (verbal noun) and “present participle” (verbal adjective) into a single category: the gerund-participle.
It argues that since there is no stable difference in form or distribution between “gerunds” and “present participles” in Modern English, treating them as a single gerund-participle form provides a more rigorous and accurate model of the language.
Morphology: Formed by the suffix -ing.
Function: It serves as the head of a clause acting as a complement, adjunct, or subject (e.g., Walking helps vs. He is walking).
The Past Participle (The -en form)¶
This form is used in the construction of the perfect aspect and the passive voice.
Morphology: Formed by the suffix -ed (regular) or various irregular endings (e.g., taken, broken).
Function: It occurs in perfect constructions (He has written it) and passive constructions (It was written).
Usage¶
Non-Finite Clause Structure¶
Participles head non-finite clauses. These clauses lack primary tense and subject–auxiliary inversion, and typically contain no overt subject (though one may be recoverable or expressed in genitive/accusative form in certain constructions).
Because they are non-finite, they allow clausal embedding without a finite subordinate clause, yielding structural compression.
(a) Supplementary participial clauses¶
Compare:
Finite clause
When she entered the room, she smiled.Non-finite participial clause
Entering the room, she smiled.
Structure (2):
Entering the room = non-finite clause
Head: present participle entering
Complement: NP the room
Subject understood as co-referential with matrix subject (she)
The participial clause functions as a supplementary adjunct, reducing the need for a finite subordinator (when).
(b) Integrated participial clauses¶
The man standing by the door is my uncle.
standing by the door = non-finite clause
Head: present participle standing
Complement: PP by the door
Entire clause modifies man
Equivalent finite relative clause:
The man who is standing by the door is my uncle.
The participial construction omits:
relative pronoun
finite auxiliary (is)
tense marking
This illustrates how participles enable structural reduction while preserving clausal properties.
(c) Perfect participial clauses¶
Having finished the work, she left.
Having finished the work = non-finite clause
Head: perfect participle having finished
Object: NP the work
Finite equivalent:
After she had finished the work, she left.
Again, the participial clause provides a more compact embedding.
Functional Versatility¶
Participles allow verbs to function in positions otherwise associated with adjectives or nouns, while retaining core verbal properties.
(a) Adjectival position with verbal properties¶
The students writing essays are tired.
writing essays modifies students
Internally, writing:
takes direct object (essays)
could take adverbial modification (writing essays quickly)
This is not a lexical adjective. It is a verbal clause functioning as modifier.
Contrast:
The broken window was expensive to replace.
Here broken is a past participle heading a non-finite clause (with implicit agent). It retains passive verbal interpretation.
(b) Predicative complements¶
The door remained closed.
closed = past participle functioning as predicative complement of remained.
In many cases the participle is adjectival in category, though historically deverbal.
But consider:
The door was closed by the guard.
Here closed is part of a passive VP, not a predicative adjective. It:
permits a by-phrase
participates in verbal inflectional paradigm
Thus participles participate in both:
verbal clause structures
adjectival predicative structures
(c) Gerund-participle as nominal head of clause¶
Swimming in cold water requires courage.
Swimming in cold water = non-finite clause
Head: gerund-participle swimming
Complement: PP in cold water
Entire clause functions as Subject
Finite equivalent:
That one swims in cold water requires courage. (marked/unidiomatic)
The participial form allows a clause to occupy NP positions.
(d) Retention of verbal properties¶
Even when functioning in “nominal” or “adjectival” positions, participles retain verbal characteristics:
Take objects:
Destroying evidence is illegal.Take adverbs:
Quickly finishing the task impressed everyone.Permit internal complements:
Being extremely difficult to understand, the text frustrated students.
This dual capacity — syntactic distribution of non-verbs with internal structure of verbs — gives participles exceptional flexibility.
Summary¶
Participles are important because they:
Head non-finite clauses, enabling syntactic compression relative to finite subordination.
Allow verbs to appear in:
modifier position (like adjectives)
subject/object position (like nouns)
predicative complement position
Retain core verbal properties (objects, complements, adverbial modification) even when functioning in non-verbal syntactic slots.
They are therefore central to the interaction between category and function in clause structure.