Clause: relative¶

Definition¶

A subordinate clause functioning mainly as a modifier of an NP. Specifically, an adjunct, in the nominal.

Modifies something occurring earlier
It has gap, and an antecedent, that corresponds to this gap
It contains a gap or dependency linked to that antecedent.
Typically headed by a relative word - a relativized, which is always either a relative pronoun or relative adverb. But can also appear bare, as is.

Types:

Integrated (“restrictive”)
Supplementary (“non restrictive”)

Examples¶

The claim [that she made _ ] (gap: thing)

that she made = relative clause, modifying claim

The place [where we met _ ] (gap: location)

where we met = relative clause modifying place

Nobody knows the trouble [I’v seen _ ] (gap thing)

This relative clause begins with neither a subordinator, nor a relative pronoun (bare)

Sample relativisation¶

We are profoundly grateful to Mr. Charles Bruntley.

Replace the noun with a relative pronoun:

We are profoundly grateful to whom.

Now attach the relative clause to the noun:

Mr. Charles Bruntley, to whom we are profoundly grateful. (Pied-piped)

Key properties¶

Cannot substitute for an NP.
Always modifies an NP.
Involves an anaphoric dependency.

Integrated¶

Couldn’t be left out without grossly changing the structure and the meaning

Here is the package [that I’v been waiting for _]

Here “that sbr” is roughly like:

I’v been waiting for this

Mr. Corleone is a man [who __ likes to hear bad news immediately]

For non-human nouns, can begin with either “which” or “that”

Supplementary¶

Can be left out, without changing the main assertion (“non-restrictive”, “appositive relatives”)
Separated by commas

The duke, [who the organizers had hoped __ would present the award], was unable to attend owing to illness.

I’d now like to welcome Mr. Charles Bruntley, [to whom we are all profoundly grateful _]

If no associated with a human referring noun must begin with “which”

Sentential relative¶

Supplementary relative clause where the antecedent is not a single noun or noun phrase, but an entire clause or proposition.

While integrated relative clauses (restrictive) always attach to a nominal head, sentential relatives are always supplementary (non-restrictive).

They provide a comment on the situation described in the main clause.

Key Characteristics

The Relativizer: These clauses almost exclusively use “which” as the relative pronoun. Unlike integrated relatives, you cannot use “that” or a “who” variant in this construction.
The Antecedent: The “which” refers back to the state of affairs, event, or fact expressed by the preceding clause.
Punctuation: They are invariably set off by a comma (or a prosodic pause in speech).

She studies late at night, which I never do.

The streets were empty, which was unusual for this time of day.

Liz missed her flight, which caused her to reschedule her entire trip

When you can drop a relative pronoun¶

Clause type	Pronoun role	Can you drop it?	Example
Integrated	Subject	❌ No	The person who called you…
Integrated	Object	✅ Yes	The book (that) I read…
Supplement	Subject	❌ No	My uncle, who lives in Paris…
Supplement	Object	❌ No (in standard English)	My uncle, whom I met yesterday…

Non-finite infinitival relatives¶

Relative clauses where the verb appears as a to-infinitive and there is no overt subject.

These clauses function like reduced relative clauses modifying the noun.

She is easy to talk to.

That chair is uncomfortable to sit in.

The relative clause gap¶

Real gap if the element not overtly in the clause, only represented by the gap.

Real gap¶

Occur when the relativized element would normally appear as:

Object of a verb
Object of a preposition
Predicative complement
Complement in comparatives, etc.

Not real gap¶

Occur when the relativizer itself fills the position, mainly:

Subject (who)
Determiner (whose)

Rule of thumb¶

If the relativizer fills the position itself: not a real gap
Stands outside the clause and leaves its role behind: real gap

Relativising¶

While the most common relative clauses are “relative to” (modifying) a Noun Phrase, English allows relative clauses to relate to entire clauses or even adjectives.

Relativizing an NP (The Standard)

The relative clause acts as a modifier for a noun.

The argument [which he presented] was flawed

Analysis: The "which" relates specifically to the NP the argument.

Relativizing a clause (sentential relatives)

This is a powerful tool for opinionated writing. A relative clause can refer back to the entire preceding thought or situation. In CGEL, these are always supplementary (non-restrictive).

He resigned from the committee, which surprised everyone.

Analysis: What surprised everyone? Not "the committee," but the fact that he resigned. The relative pronoun "which" relates to the entire clause.

Pro Tip: This allows you to comment on your own arguments as you make them.

Relativizing an adjective or an adjunct

In very specific constructions, usually with the word as or which, the relative can relate to an adjective.

He was courageous, as were all his ancestors.

Analysis: Here, as relates back to the property of being courageous (an Adjective Phrase).

Fused relatives, the “topic” is inside

In a fused relative, there is no NP outside the clause for the relative to relate to. The relative pronoun “fuses” with its antecedent.

I will buy whatever you are selling.”

Analysis: There is no NP like "the thing" here. Whatever acts as both the object of buy and the object of selling.

Ways to Introduce Relative Clauses in CGEL¶

In CGEL, a relative clause can be introduced by a few different types of heads, depending on whether the clause modifies an NP and what role its internal constituents play. The main ones are:

1. Relative Pronouns¶

Function: Serve as the subject, object, or complement inside the relative clause and link it to the antecedent NP.
Common forms: who, whom, whose, which, that
Examples:
1. The man who arrived yesterday is my uncle. → who = subject of relative clause
2. The book that I read was fascinating. → that = object of relative clause
3. The girl whose bike was stolen is upset. → whose = possessive determiner

Notes:

Relative pronouns are obligatory when the antecedent is explicitly marked as subject/object in the clause.
That can function as a general relative pronoun for humans or things, without distinction of case.

2. Relative Adverbs¶

Already discussed: where, when, why
Function: Serve as the adverbial head of the relative clause; link it to a time, place, or reason antecedent.
Restriction: They cannot serve as subjects or objects; they act adverbially inside the relative clause.

3. Zero or Ø Relative¶

Function: Relative clause introduced with no overt relative pronoun or adverb.
Often called a “gap” relative or bare relative in CGEL.
Examples:
1. The book I read was fascinating. → Ø (no relative pronoun), object role filled by gap
2. The people we met were friendly. → Ø, object of met

Notes:

Usually occurs when the relative pronoun would be the object of the clause and can be omitted.
The gap is co-indexed with the antecedent NP.
CGEL treats this as syntactically fully grammatical and a common alternative to overt pronouns.

4. Other Possibilities (less common in standard English)¶

Sometimes “as” in certain comparative relatives:
- He is taller than I am. → comparative clause
But generally, relative clauses are introduced by:
1. Relative pronouns → for NP-subject, object, or possessive functions
2. Relative adverbs → for time, place, reason
3. Zero relative → gaps where object is understood

Fused¶

Fusion concerns the structure of the relative clause, not the main sentence
The fused clause functions as NP
Fusion occurs when the head of an NP and the relative element are the same word

Take what you want (active voice)

What was said shocked everyone (passive voice)

If it has “what” at the beginning, an open interrogative content clause may look *exactly
Test: add the word “else” after “what”

I don’t know what else she is doing (interrogative)

~~I don’t like what else she’s doing~~ (fused rc.)

Relativise adjuncts¶

While it is very common to relativize a complement, you can also relativize adjuncts.

Complement:

“Read” is a transitive verb, it must have an object - so it licenses a complement:

The book [which I read __]

“Speak” to someone:

The man [whom I spoke to __]

Adjunct:

An adjunct provides extra information (time, place, manner, reason) and is not required by the verb. You can relativize these too. There is no gap to be filled.

The house [where I live] (place, no gap)

The day [when we met] (time, no gap)

The reason [why he left] (reason, no gap)

In these cases, where, when, and why are relative adverbs (or in some CGEL classifications, specialized prepositions) that function as adjunct within the relative clause.

They aren’t filling a “hole” left by the verb; they are adding a layer of context.

Real examples¶

Gap position	Relativised element type	Full sentence example
Subject	NP (subject)	The researcher who uncovered the discrepancy in the government’s statistics later testified before the parliamentary committee.
Object of a verb	NP (direct object)	The report that the ministry quietly released late on Friday evening raised more questions than it answered.
Indirect object	NP (indirect object)	The young diplomat whom the president personally offered the position declined the appointment after several days of deliberation.
Object of a preposition	NP (object of P / PP complement)	The colleague to whom the editor entrusted the delicate negotiations handled the situation with notable discretion.
Predicative complement	NP (subject complement)	The pragmatic leader that the once-radical activist gradually became surprised even his earliest supporters.
Object complement	NP (object complement)	The decision that the board ultimately judged a serious miscalculation cost the company millions in lost contracts.
Comparative complement	NP (complement of than/as)	The settlement that the final agreement proved far less generous than disappointed many of the workers who had supported the strike.
Complement in an infinitival clause	NP (object inside non-finite VP)	The policy that the administration promised to abandon remained quietly in force long after the election.
Object of a preposition inside PP	NP (object of P in PP)	The principles on which the entire reform programme was supposedly based were never clearly explained to the public.

Reduced¶

Reduced relative type	Reduced element type	Underlying full relative clause	Reduced relative clause	Full sentence example
Gerund-participle (active)	gerund-participle VP	who are examining the data	examining the data	The analysts examining the latest inflation figures warned that the slowdown might prove temporary.
Gerund-participle with object	gerund-participle VP + object	who are reviewing the report	reviewing the report	The committee members reviewing the confidential report declined to comment publicly.
Gerund-participle with adjunct	gerund-participle VP + adjunct	who are working late into the night	working late into the night	The journalists working late into the night struggled to verify the conflicting reports.
Past-participle (passive)	past-participle VP	that were released yesterday	released yesterday	The documents released by the ministry late on Friday evening immediately sparked controversy.
Past-participle with agent	past-participle VP + PP	that were proposed by the commission	proposed by the commission	The reforms proposed by the commission last year remain politically contentious.
Past-participle with adjunct	past-participle VP + adjunct	that were announced during the meeting	announced during the meeting	The measures announced during the emergency session took effect immediately.
Active infinitival relative	infinitival VP	who will lead the inquiry	to lead the inquiry	The party is searching for a leader to unite its increasingly divided factions.
Infinitival with object	infinitival VP + object	that we must discuss at the meeting	to discuss at the meeting	The committee identified several issues to discuss at the next session.
Passive infinitival relative	passive infinitival VP	that should be resolved	to be resolved	The agreement leaves several key provisions to be clarified by future negotiations.
Perfect participial relative (rare, formal)	perfect participial VP	who has/had secured the concession	having secured the concession	The diplomat having secured the final concession quietly concluded the negotiations.